The Mesolithic Phase of the Stone Age culture transitioned into the Neolithic Phase around 4000 BCE in the Indian context. This phase followed the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and preceded the Chalcolithic period.

•  The term ‘Neolithic’ was first introduced by Sir John Lubbock in his 1865 publication Prehistoric Times. During this time, significant cultural transformations began as the Holocene epoch commenced. 
• A warming climate globally altered animal and plant populations and their distribution, influencing the lifestyles of Neolithic communities. These environmental changes, along with conscious cultural adaptations, played a vital role in shaping Neolithic societies.

Neolithic Revolution Transforming Life Through Agriculture and Domestication

• The early Holocene developments in agriculture and pastoralism were termed the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ by V. Gordon Childe in 1941.
• This period marked the transition from a food-gathering economy to a food-producing economy, involving agriculture and animal domestication.
• The term ‘revolution’ reflects the profound socio-economic changes of this era, characterized by cultural adaptations to sustain livelihoods.
• Refined and polished Neolithic tools significantly eased agricultural practices like soil cultivation.
• Animal domestication was a prominent feature, leading to settled agricultural communities.
• Domestication of plants and animals resulted in surplus food production, necessitating storage methods like pottery-making.
• As a result of food production, people moved out of caves and built houses, leading to the establishment of large villages and permanent settlements.
• Craft specialization emerged alongside food surplus, paving the way for early urban cultures during the Bronze Age.
• These developments laid the foundation for urban formations, crafts, and early states in subsequent periods.

Neolithic Age Cultures in India: Regional Variations and Discoveries

• Neolithic cultures in India exhibit regional variations, as they did not develop or conclude uniformly across the subcontinent. 
• Archaeological excavations and explorations have provided valuable insights into these cultures.

• North-Western Region:

• • Mehrgarh (Balochistan):
    • Located on the banks of the Bolan River, Mehrgarh is a significant Neolithic site.
    • Polished stone axes, querns, microliths, and bone tools have been discovered.
    • Evidence of pottery and the earliest combined domestication of cattle, sheep, goats, wheat, and barley has been found here.
  • Kili Gul Muhammad (Quetta Valley, Pakistan):
    • People constructed wattle-and-daub and mud houses.
    • Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
    • Pottery types include basket-marked and black-on-red ware with painted designs.
    • Evidence of nomadic pastoralism and microlithic tools has been recovered.

• Northern Region (Kashmir):

• • Burzahom:
    • People lived in pit-houses to withstand Kashmir’s extreme cold.
    • Involved in hunting, fishing, and limited agriculture, with evidence of grain storage.
    • Finds include a perforated harvester with decoration and Kot Diji phase pottery depicting a horned deity.
    • Domesticated animals included cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, and fowl.
    • A burial at this site revealed a wild dog’s bone and antler horn, indicating dog domestication.
  • Gufkral (Cave of the Potter):
    • Pit dwellings and polished stone tools have been found.
    • Bones of sheep, goats, deer, ibex, wolves, and bears indicate reliance on pastoralism and hunting.
    • Querns, horn tools, and steatite beads provide insights into material culture.

• North-Eastern India:

• • Key Sites: Marakdola, Daojali Hading, and Sarutaru in Assam.
    • Discoveries include shouldered celts, round-type ground axes, and cord-impressed pottery with quartz inclusions.
    • Evidence of shifting cultivation, yam and taro farming, and memorial stone and wooden structures for the deceased has been found.

• South India:

• • Over 200 Neolithic sites have been identified in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and the northwestern part of Tamil Nadu.
  • Important Sites: Kupgal, Budihal, Kodekal, Kudatini, Sanganakallu, T. Narsipur, and Brahmagiri.
  • Ash mound sites include Utnur and Pallvoy in Andhra Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal, and Budihal in Karnataka.
  • Economy and Tools:
  • South Indian Neolithic cultures had an agropastoral economy, with cattle domestication.
  • Crops included millets, pulses, and legumes.
  • Tools consisted of polished stone axes, lithic blades, choppers, knives, scrapers, and other implements.

Features of Neolithic Societies: Agriculture, Tools and Settlements

• Domestication and Agriculture:
  • Cultivation of plants and animal domestication formed the backbone of Neolithic economies.
  • A variety of crops and domesticated animals ensured food security and surplus.
• Tool Refinement:
  • Polished tools improved efficiency in farming and other daily activities compared to crude tools of earlier periods.
• Permanent Settlements:
  • The shift from caves to constructed houses led to the emergence of large villages and community living.
• Pottery Development:
  • Pottery-making emerged as an essential craft for food storage.
• Craft Specialization:
  • Surplus production allowed for the development of specialized crafts, laying the groundwork for complex societies.