Religious Literary Sources of Ancient India 

• Vedas: The Vedas are the most ancient Indian texts, dating back to around 1500–500 BCE. They are considered sacred and are traditionally regarded as ‘heard’ or revealed scriptures.
• Vedic literature is divided into three categories:
  • Samhitas: Collections of hymns, prayers, incantations, sacrificial formulas, and litanies. The four Samhitas are:
    • Rigveda Samhita: A compilation of hymns dedicated to praise and devotion.
    • Atharvaveda Samhita: Focuses on magical formulas and rituals.
    • Samaveda Samhita: Deals with melodies and chants.
    • Yajurveda Samhita: Includes sacrificial formulas.
• Brahamanas: Prose texts explaining the theological significance and practical aspects of sacrificial rites.
• Aranyakas and Upanishads: These forest texts and philosophical treatises delve into metaphysical concepts like the soul (Atma) and the supreme being (Paramatma). The Upanishads are often referred to as Vedanta and represent early Indian philosophical thought.
• Sutras: Sutras are categorized as ‘smriti’ (memorized texts) and lack the sanctity of the Vedas but are still authoritative. They are manuals on rituals:
  • Shrautasutras: Guidelines for performing major sacrifices.
  • Grihyasutras: Directions for daily ceremonies and simple sacrificial acts.
  • Dharmasutras: The earliest law books detailing spiritual and secular laws.
• Epics – Ramayana and Mahabharata: These epics, known as Itihasa, were composed between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
  • Mahabharata by Vyasa reflects events from the Later Vedic period and later historical phases up to the Gupta era.
  • Ramayana by Valmiki is more unified and provides insights into ancient societal norms.
  • Archaeological excavations at sites like Ayodhya and Hastinapura align with descriptions in these epics, offering historical context.
• Puranas: Eighteen major Puranas and numerous Upapuranas were compiled by around 400 CE. Puranas like Vayu, Brahmanda, and Vishnu provide genealogical data, geographical information, and historical insights, aiding in the reconstruction of ancient Indian history and geography.

Secular Literary Sources of Ancient India 

• Smriti Texts: Composed between 200 BCE and 900 CE, these texts outline duties for different social groups and provide rules for marriage, property, and penalties for crimes.
  • Manu Smriti: The earliest law book, foundational for Hindu law.
  • Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Offers a comprehensive account of statecraft and the Mauryan period’s polity and economy.
• Sangam Literature: The earliest Tamil literature, composed over several centuries, is secular and created by poets in Sangams or literary assemblies. The three Sangams:  
  • First at Madurai: Attended by Tamil Gods and all deliberations of this assembly are lost. 
  •  Second at Kapatapuram: Attended by Tamil Gods and Tamil poets. 
  • The third was at Madurai which was attended by Tamil poets.
  • Sangam works include Tolkappiyam, Silapaddikaram, and Manimekalai, which provide valuable insights into South Indian society and culture.
• Poetry and Drama: Prominent Sanskrit poets and playwrights include:
  • Ashvagosha: Authored Buddhacharita and Saundarananda.
  • Bhasa: Known for dramas like Pancharatra and Svapna-Vasavadatta.
  • Kalidasa: His works, including Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Raghuvamsha, highlight Gupta-era cultural life.
  • Other significant works include Vishakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, which documents the history of Kashmir.
• Narrative Literature: Collections like Panchatantra and Kathasaritasagara feature popular folk tales with moral lessons.
• Biographies: Court poets often penned biographies of kings:
  • Banabhatta’s Harshacharita: Chronicles the life of Harshavardhana.
  • Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacarita: Describes the reign of Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VI.

Scientific Writing Sources of Ancient India 

• Mathematics and Astronomy:

• • • Aryabhatta: A fifth-century scholar who authored Aryabhatiya. He introduced the concept of zero and accurately calculated the Earth’s circumference.
    • Brahmagupta: In the 7th century, he advanced mathematical concepts through Brahmasphutasiddhanta, influencing Arab mathematicians.
    • Varahamihira: Contributed to hydrology, geology, ecology, and astrology. He authored Brhat Samhita and was a scholar in Vikramaditya’s court.

• Medicine and Surgery:

• • • Susruta: Regarded as the father of surgery. His Susruta Samhita details surgical methods and over 1,100 diseases.
    • Charaka: Known as the father of Indian medicine. His Charaka Samhita provides a systematic approach to medical science.

• Grammar and Linguistics:

• • • Panini: Authored Ashtadhyayi, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar, reflecting social changes between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.

• Yoga and Philosophy:

• • Patanjali: Systematized the science of Yoga in his works, including Mahabhashya, which offers insights into early historical social conditions.

Regional Literary Sources of Ancient India 

• Two prominent languages that evolved in ancient India were Pali and Prakrit. These languages were promoted by followers of Buddhism and Jainism to disseminate the principles of heterodox sects. 

• • Among the non-Brahmanical and non-Sanskritic sources of early India, Buddhist and Jain literature constitute a significant category. Canonical texts adhered strictly to literary rules, while non-canonical texts exhibited greater flexibility.
  • Composed after the death of the Buddha, the Pali texts Tripitakas or the ‘Three Baskets’ provide insights into the state of affairs in India during the time of the Buddha and the sixteen Mahajanapadas.
    • The Tripitakas are the Buddhist canonical literature and their commentaries in the Pali language.
    • They consist of three books: Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma.

• The Sutta Pitaka includes discourses of the Buddha on various doctrinal issues in the form of stories, poems, and dialogues. It contains five Nikayas, with Khuddaka Nikaya being a collection of discourses. It features Theragatha, Therigatha, and Jatakas, which are significant sources of historiography.

• • The Jatakas narrate stories of the Buddha’s previous births as various beings like deva, man, animal, fairy, or mythological characters. These stories, drawn from pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist oral traditions, were widely popular and depicted in sculptural reliefs at Bharhut, Sanchi, Nagarjunakonda, and Amaravati. They offer insights into the history of Buddhism and its popular practices.
  • The Vinaya Pitaka outlines the rules and regulations for monks and nuns of the Sangha. It includes explanations about the founding of each rule by the Buddha, details of the Buddha’s life, significant events, and the history of Buddhism up to the first schism in 386 BCE.
  • The Abhidhamma Pitaka delves into Buddhist philosophy as per the Theravada school, featuring lists, summaries, and question-and-answer formats.
• Theragatha (Verses of Elder Monks) and Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns) comprise poems recited by early members of the Buddhist Sangha. The Therigatha supports the idea of women’s equality with men in spiritual attainment.
• Non-canonical Buddhist literature includes Milindapanha (first century BCE), which features a dialogue between the Indo-Greek king Menander and the Buddhist monk Nagasena.
• The Mahavamsha (‘Great History’) and Dipavamsha (‘History of the Island’) chronicle Buddhism’s history from the time of the Buddha’s Enlightenment to the third century BCE in India and the fourth century in Sri Lanka.
• Jaina texts, written in Prakrit, were compiled in the sixth century AD at Vallabhi in Gujarat. Known as Angas, they encapsulate the philosophical concepts of Jainism. The Bhagavati Sūtra, the fifth of the 12 Jain āagamas, is said to have been promulgated by Bhagwan Mahavira.