Megalithic culture refers to the use of large stones, or megaliths, to construct monuments or structures, typically with a commemorative, ritualistic, or sepulchral association. 

• These structures have been found across India, especially beyond the Indus Valley Civilization, showcasing an ancient practice that thrived in various regions.

What Are Megaliths?

A megalith is a large stone used in the construction of significant monuments or structures. 

• These structures may be solitary or built using a group of stones. 
• The term “megalithic” specifically refers to monuments built from large stones with associations related to burials, commemoration, or religious rituals. The most common megalithic structures are burial sites located away from residential areas. These include:
  • Dolmenoid cists: Box-shaped stone burial chambers.
  • Cairn circles: Stone circles marking defined peripheries.
  • Capstones: Distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers, primarily found in Kerala.

Key Types of Megalithic Structures

• Menhir: A vertical stone monolith, sometimes in groups. When a single large stone marks a burial site, it is referred to as a Menhir.
• Dolmen: A single-chamber tomb made of upright stones with a large flat horizontal capstone on top. Dolmens were often covered with earth or smaller stones, forming a barrow.

The Iron Age in South India

• The earliest Iron Age sites in South India date back to around 1000 BC, with significant excavations at places like Hallur in Karnataka and Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu. Key milestones in the excavation of megalithic sites include:
  • Dr. Jagor’s excavation at Adichanallur (late 19th century).
  • Alexander Rea’s excavations at numerous megalithic sites in South India.
  • Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s excavation at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli in Karnataka (1944), which placed South Indian megaliths in a chronological context.
• Megalithic culture in South India is marked by various burial practices, and the Iron Age remains largely known from these burial sites and their accompanying grave goods. 
• The culture aligns with the end phase of the Iron Age and the pre-Sangam age, which is referenced in Sangam literature.

South India’s Megalithic Culture

• Historians like Neelkantha Shastri have highlighted the significance of the megalithic culture in South India.
•  According to Shastri, the region exhibited distinctive features of the megalithic phase, which laid the groundwork for the history of South India. 
• This era is seen as the precursor to the Sangam literature of the early Christian Era.

Social and Settlement Structures in Megalithic Culture

• • Megalithic communities were primarily governed by religious and supernatural beliefs, evident from their burial practices and the construction of menhirs and dolmens. The role of rituals and offerings for commemorating the dead was a significant aspect of these cultures.

• Professional Groups: Megalithic communities likely included different professional groups, as evidenced by the types of grave goods found in burial sites:

• • • Smiths
    • Warriors
    • Goldsmiths
    • Agriculturists
    • Carpenters
    • This division of labor suggests a well-structured society with varying socio-economic strata.

• Community Effort in Burial Practices:

• • • Building megalithic structures was a collective effort, involving groups of individuals rather than just one or two.
    •  The setting up of huge stones, like in menhirs or dolmens, suggests a collaborative effort for monumental construction.

• Socio-religious Indicators:

• • • The variations in burial types and the accompanying grave goods indicate a socio-religious differentiation within these communities. 
    • Larger, more elaborate burials with high-quality items point to differences in social status.

• Evidence of Domesticated Animals: 

• Megalithic sites have yielded remains of domesticated animals, including:

• Cattle
• Sheep/Goat
• Dogs
• Pigs
• Buffaloes
• Fowls

• This highlights the continuation of cattle pastoralism from the Neolithic period and the dominant role of cattle in the megalithic economy.

Housing and Settlements in Megalith Culture

• The megalithic people likely resided in huts with thatched or reed roofs, supported by wooden posts, as evidenced by postholes found at sites like Brahmagiri and Maski.
•  These postholes suggest the use of timber for ordinary building constructions.

Prominent Megalithic Sites in India

Megalithic sites are spread across India, each revealing distinctive burial practices and societal structures. Some key sites include:

• • Mainland India: Kakoria, Kotia (UP)
  • Central India: Junapani, Mahurjhari, Naikund (Maharashtra)
  • North India: Burzahom (Kashmir)
  • Northeast India: Nartiang (Meghalaya)
  • South India: Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu)

Key Findings from Megalithic Excavations

Excavations of megalithic sites have uncovered a wide array of artifacts, reflecting the culture and daily life of the people. Some notable findings include:

• • Stone implements
  • Rice husk
  • Black and Red Ware Pottery
  • Iron implements
  • Ceramic goods

Agriculture During Megalith Culture

Evidence from excavations at Kunnattur (iron sickles) and Hallur (plough coulters, rice, and ragi grains) indicates that agriculture was a primary occupation, supplemented by hunting, as seen in the hunting depictions at Hire-Benkal.

• Megalithic settlements were located near fertile arable lands, water sources, and pastures, reflecting a strategic choice for farming and livestock rearing.
• Historians suggest that megalithic people practiced agriculture in both Rabi and Kharif seasons.
• Discoveries at Naikund and Mahurjhari indicate food grain storage, emphasizing an agrarian economy.
• The introduction of tank irrigation revolutionized farming in South India, facilitating paddy cultivation, a staple crop of the megalithic era.
• Archaeobotanical studies reveal the cultivation of multiple crops, including ragi, navane, wheat, barley, kodo millet, hyacinth bean, horse gram, black gram, green gram, pigeon pea, lentils, cotton, and others.

Pastoralism and Hunting During Megalith Culture

Domestication of pigs and fowls, evidenced by their remains, points to small-scale pig rearing and poultry farming.

• Tools like arrowheads, spears, and javelins suggest that hunting supplemented food sources.
• Faunal remains from various sites show that species like wild boar, hyena, deer, sambar, chital, nilgai, and even large predators like tigers and leopards were hunted.
• Terracotta net sinkers (Takalghat), fish-hooks (Khapa and Tangal), and fish remains (Yelleshwaram) indicate that fishing was a practiced activity.

Technological Advancements During Megalith Culture

• Metallurgy

• • • Megalithic sites often served as centers for the production of metals like iron, copper, gold, and silver.
    • Iron was predominantly used to make tools, agricultural implements, and weapons for daily needs and warfare.
    • Copper vessels and ornaments were widely used, while gold was reserved for ornamentation. The use of silver was limited.
    • Bronze, though rare, has been found in Adichannallur and Nilgiris.
    • Charcoal, wood, dung, and paddy husk were the primary fuels for smelting.

• Crafts

• • • Woodwork: Tools like axes, chisels, hammers, and borers were used for working with wood. Wooden ploughs were common in agriculture.
    • Bead Making: Sites like Mahurjhari and Kodumanal show evidence of a bead-making industry, producing items from terracotta to gold.
    • Stone Cutting: Stone cutting and shaping were evidenced by chisel impressions at Borgaon Khurd and rock-cut tombs in Kerala and North Karnataka.
    • Domestic Artefacts: Tools like pestles, mortars, and saddle querns were common at megalithic sites.

• Pottery

• • Black-and-Red Ware (BRW): This wheel-turned pottery was characteristic of the megalithic period, featuring bowls, vases, and dishes. Excavations at Mahurjhari revealed micaceous red ware, black-and-red pottery, and other variants.
  • Burnished Black Ware: Included items like elongated vases and spouted vessels.
  • Red Ware: Utilitarian shapes like legged vessels and dough plates were prominent.
  • Russet Coated Painted Ware (RCPW): These bore wavy lines and decorative motifs, occasionally featuring graffiti post-firing.

Trade and Exchange During Megalith Culture

Roman coins discovered in Tamil Nadu and Kerala burial sites indicate active trade and cultural exchanges.

• Cotton from Uraiyur, a major export commodity, was traded with Rome.
• Non-local items like carnelian beads and bronze objects reflect a vibrant trade network.
• Finds like rouletted ware, amphorae, and ceramics suggest maritime trade connections.
• Variations in resource availability prompted long-distance trade, facilitated by traders from the Gangetic plains and overseas regions.

Regional Contributions in Megalith Culture

Mahurjhari (Nagpur) is considered a significant megalithic site, yielding iron axes, copper bowls, terracotta beads, gold ornaments, and painted black-and-red pottery.

• The presence of gold and decorated pottery in burials suggests the high status of certain individuals, likely warriors or elites.