The Aryans moved eastward into the upper Gangetic basin during the Later Vedic period, expanding with the use of iron weapons and horse-drawn chariots.

•  Important rulers like Parikshat and Janamejaya ruled the Kuru kingdom, and Pravahana Jaivali was a renowned king of the Panchalas, known for his patronage of learning. 
• Excavations have revealed Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, with evidence of iron use, marking the PGW iron phase (1000–800 BCE). Iron was referred to as “ayas” in the Yajur Veda and Brahmanas.

Kingdoms and Political Developments During Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE)

• Large kingdoms emerged, with Kuru and Panchala initially dominant. Over time, they merged, creating the Kuru-Panchala region with Hastinapur as its capital.
•  The Mahabharata’s Bharata battle (around 950 BCE) details the conflict within the Kuru clan. 
• After their fall, the kingdoms of Kosala, Kasi, Videha, Magadha, Anga, and Vanga rose to prominence.

Political Organization During Later Vedic Period

• Monarchy evolved with the decline of popular assemblies. The rajanya class became synonymous with the Kshatriya warriors, who ruled over territories. Tribes merged into larger janapadas. 
• The king’s position became hereditary, but succession was often contentious, as seen in the Mahabharata. 
• The king performed important rituals, such as Rajasuya, Asvamedha, and Vajpeya, to assert his authority. Brahmanas gained influence by legitimizing the kings’ rule.

Administration During Later Vedic Period

• The Sabha and Samiti lost power, while village assemblies took over local administration. 
• Gramyavadins (village judges) and Sabhas handled legal cases, and the king administered justice, delegating powers to officers like Adhyakshas.
•  Taxes were collected by officials such as Sangrihitri, and Bali (voluntary presents) were collected from people. Military service was organized by mustering tribal units during war.

Economic Condition During Later Vedic Period

• Iron use facilitated agriculture, enabling the clearing of forests and expansion of cultivation. Agriculture became the primary livelihood, with rice, barley, and wheat as major crops. 
• Iron implements were essential in military and agricultural activities. Iron weapons, chariots, and improved ploughshares facilitated these advances.

Arts and Crafts During Later Vedic Period

• Industrial activities became diverse, with advancements in metalwork, carpentry, pottery, and weaving. Pottery included red ware, black-slipped ware, and the distinctive Painted Grey Ware (PGW). The use of copper and iron objects also saw progress, and guilds emerged for specialized crafts.

Trade During Later Vedic Period

• Foreign trade expanded, with the Vedic people engaging with regions such as Babylon. Merchants, known as Vaniya, played a key role in commerce. 
• Coinage, including gold and silver coins like Satamana and Krishnala, became common. Transport systems improved with ox-drawn wagons, chariots, elephants, and boats.

Social Life During Later Vedic Period

• Pastoralism gave way to mixed farming, with settled communities. The transition to sedentary life led to the development of proto-urban sites like Hastinapur and Kaushambi. 
• People lived in durable houses made of mud, brick, or wattle-and-daub. However, peasants did not contribute much to the rise of towns due to limited agricultural production.

Varna System During Later Vedic Period

• During the Later Vedic period, society became more complex with the rise of the Varna system, which categorized people into four groups: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Shudras. 
• Brahmanas and Kshatriyas held the highest status, while Shudras were the lowest. This system was supported by the concept of varna dharma, where each varna had its duties and responsibilities.
•  The social hierarchy also led to the emergence of sub-castes based on occupation.

Four Ashramas During Later Vedic Period

• The concept of the four stages of life (Ashramas) was established: Brahmachari (student), Grihasta (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit), and Sanyasin (ascetic). 
• These stages aimed to guide individuals towards fulfilling Dharma (duty), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire), and Moksha (liberation).

Family During Later Vedic Period

• Patriarchy increased during this period, with the father being the head of the family and having control over inheritance. The law of primogeniture applied, where the eldest son inherited the family wealth. 
• Women had limited rights, with their status declining compared to the Rig Vedic period. Polygamy was prevalent, and the practice of child marriage and dowry emerged. 
• Women’s participation in political or religious activities was restricted.

Education and Food During Later Vedic Period

• Education became structured, with students learning the Vedas, Upanishads, grammar, law, and other subjects. 
• The Gurukula system emerged for imparting education. Rice became the staple food, and the consumption of meat declined, especially the killing of cows.

Religion During Later Vedic Period

• The gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost prominence, while Prajapati (the creator), Vishnu (the protector), and Rudra (the destroyer) gained importance. The worship of Vasudeva (Krishna Vasudeva) also began. 
• This period saw the rise of new religious ideas, with the concept of divine order and the beginnings of philosophical speculation.