1. Petroglyphs

Ø News:   Researchers have recently discovered two ancient petroglyphs carved on a flat rock inside a rock shelter located on a hill behind the Beerappa Temple in Manchirevula, Telangana.

Ø Definition and Nature:

o Petroglyphs, also referred to as rock engravings, are symbolic images carved or etched onto rock surfaces.

o They are created by removing portions of the outer rock layer using tools that are harder than the rock itself.

Ø Techniques Used:

o These carvings are produced through methods such as pecking, incising, abrading, sculpting, polishing, drilling, and scratching.

o Since these techniques remove material from the rock, petroglyphs differ from painted rock art, which is known as petrographs.

Ø Etymology: The term petroglyph is derived from Greek words, where petros means stone and glyphein means to carve.

Ø Forms and Appearance: Petroglyphs generally appear either as surface scratches or as deeper engraved indentations on rocks.

Ø Distribution:

o They are commonly associated with prehistoric human populations.

o Petroglyphs are found on all continents except Antarctica.

o They are particularly concentrated in regions such as Africa, South America, North America (especially the southwestern United States), Siberia, Australia, and parts of Europe including Scandinavia, Galicia in Spain, Ireland, and Italy.

Ø Example in India:

o The Edakkal Caves in Wayanad, Kerala, are a well-known site featuring petroglyphs.

UPSC GS 2

2. Sujal Gaon ID

Ø News:   The Union Minister of Jal Shakti has recently launched the Sujal Gaon ID initiative.

Ø  Nature of Sujal Gaon ID: It is a scheme-based unique digital identification system designed to enable comprehensive digital mapping of rural piped water supply assets.

Ø Coverage and Integration:

o Sujal Gaon IDs have been generated across 31 States and Union Territories and are linked with 67,000 Sujalam Bharat IDs.

o Each Sujalam Bharat ID integrates both infrastructure IDs and service area IDs, thereby creating a complete digital record of rural water service delivery systems.

Ø Digital Architecture Linkage:

o The system is integrated with the Sujalam Bharat national digital architecture.

o This architecture facilitates source-to-tap mapping of the entire rural water supply chain using unique Sujal Gaon IDs or Service Area IDs for each village.

Ø  Launch and Implementation: The initiative has been launched by the Ministry of Jal Shakti under the Jal Jeevan Mission.

3. NMDC Limited

Ø News:   NMDC Limited has achieved a milestone by becoming the first mining company in India to produce 50 million tonnes of iron ore in a single financial year.

Ø Nature of the Organisation: NMDC Limited, formerly known as the National Mineral Development Corporation, is a Central Public Sector Enterprise.

Ø Establishment and Administration:

o The company was incorporated in 1958.

o It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Steel, Government of India.

Ø Areas of Operation:

o Since its inception, NMDC has been engaged in the exploration of a wide range of minerals.

o These include iron ore, copper, rock phosphate, limestone, dolomite, gypsum, bentonite, magnesite, diamond, tin, tungsten, graphite, and beach sands.

Ø Production and Capacity:

o It is the largest producer and exporter of iron ore in India.

o The company produces more than 45 million tonnes of iron ore from three fully mechanised mines located in Chhattisgarh and Karnataka.

Ø  Special Operations:

o NMDC operates the only mechanised diamond mine in India, located at Panna in Madhya Pradesh.

Ø Status and Recognition: The Department of Public Enterprises granted NMDC the status of a Navratna Public Sector Enterprise in 2008.

Ø  Headquarters: The registered office of the company is located in Hyderabad, Telangana.

4. Force Majeure

Ø News:    Several Gulf energy producers have recently invoked force majeure on oil and gas shipments following disruptions in maritime movement through the Strait of Hormuz.

Ø  Meaning and Concept:

o Force majeure refers to an extraordinary situation that makes it impossible for parties bound by a contract to fulfill their legal obligations.

o The term originates from French and literally translates to superior force.

Ø Relation to Act of God:

o It is closely linked to the idea of an act of God, which denotes events beyond human control for which no party can be held responsible.

o Such events must be completely outside the reasonable control of the contracting parties.

Ø Contractual Provision:

o Many commercial contracts include force majeure clauses as a safeguard against breach.

o These clauses list specific events that may justify non-performance of contractual obligations.

Ø Limitations:

o Force majeure does not apply to events that are foreseeable, preventable, or controllable.

o It also excludes situations arising due to negligence or misconduct of any party.

Ø Examples of Events:

o Typical force majeure events include wars, natural disasters such as earthquakes, terrorist attacks, epidemics, and civil disturbances like riots.

Ø Procedure for Invocation:

o When such an event occurs, the affected party must formally notify the other party or parties involved in the contract.

o The notification must include the start date, nature of the event, and reference to the relevant clause in the contract.

o The affected party must also demonstrate reasonable efforts taken to mitigate the impact of the event.

Ø Legal Consequences:

o Invocation of force majeure may lead to temporary suspension of obligations, modification of contract terms, or termination of the agreement.

Ø Variation Across Jurisdictions:

o The interpretation and application of force majeure differ across legal systems, with some jurisdictions requiring stricter standards.

Ø Legal Position in India:

o In India, the concept is governed by Section 56 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872.

o This provision states that a contract becomes void if its performance becomes impossible or unlawful due to an event that the promisor could not prevent after the contract was formed.

Ø Relation to International Law Principle:

o Force majeure stands in contrast to the principle of pacta sunt servanda, which holds that agreements must be honoured and cannot be arbitrarily avoided.

UPSC GS 3

5. Drawida Vazhania

Ø News:     Researchers have recently discovered a new earthworm species named Drawida vazhania from the Vazhani Dam area in Kerala.

Ø Nature of the Species: Drawida vazhania is a newly identified species of earthworm belonging to the genus Drawida.

Ø Discovery and Location: The species was recorded from the Vazhani Dam region within the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary in Thrissur district of Kerala.

Ø Taxonomic Classification:

o It belongs to the family Moniligastridae.

o The genus Drawida is naturally distributed across South, Southeast, and East Asia.

Ø Species Group and Size:

o The species has a relatively small body size.

o It is classified under the Barwelli species group within the genus.

Ø Distinguishing Features:

o It can be identified by the presence of a grooved male genital field.

o It possesses a kidney-shaped or bean-shaped prostate.

o It has a narrow, tubular, C-shaped prostatic capsule.

o A distinct small sessile atrium is present on the body wall, which helps differentiate it from related species.

Ø Scientific Significance:

o With this discovery, the total number of Drawida species reported from India has increased to 83.

o The number of such species documented from the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot has reached 55.

6.  Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome (HGPS)

Ø News:    Sentynl Therapeutics, a US-based company under Zydus Lifesciences, has entered into an agreement with South Korea’s PRG S&T to develop Progerinin, an oral drug candidate for treating Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome.

Ø Nature of the Disease:

o Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome, also known as progeria, is an extremely rare genetic disorder that causes rapid aging in children.

o It occurs in approximately one out of every four million live births worldwide.

Ø Genetic Cause:

o The condition is caused by a mutation in the LMNA gene.

o This gene produces lamin A, a protein that forms part of the structural framework of the cell nucleus.

o The mutation leads to the production of an abnormal protein called progerin instead of normal lamin A.

o Progerin destabilises the nucleus of cells and gradually damages them.

o This cellular damage accelerates aging and leads to premature cell death.

o Most cases arise due to new, spontaneous mutations, and there is usually no family history of the disorder.

Ø Onset and Development:

o Affected infants appear normal at birth.

o Signs of accelerated aging generally begin to appear within the first one to two years of life.

o Children experience slowed growth and fail to gain weight as expected.

o Intellectual development and motor skills such as sitting, standing, and walking remain unaffected.

Ø Physical Characteristics:

o The condition leads to visible features such as hair loss or baldness and prominent eyes.

o Individuals develop aged, wrinkled skin and a thin, beaked nose.

o The face appears disproportionately small in comparison to the head.

o There is also a significant loss of fat beneath the skin.

Ø Prognosis and Mortality:

o The disease is invariably fatal.

o The average life expectancy is around 14.5 years, although some individuals may survive into their early twenties.

Ø Cause of Death:

o Death usually occurs due to complications arising from severe atherosclerosis.

o In this condition, plaque accumulates within arterial walls, making them stiff and less elastic.

o This significantly increases the risk of early heart attacks and strokes.

7. Nagoya Protocol

Ø News:   The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has submitted India’s first National Report on the implementation of the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing to the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Ø  Nature of the Protocol: The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from their utilisation is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Ø Adoption and Entry into Force:

o It was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan.

o It came into force on 12 October 2014, after the fiftieth instrument of ratification was deposited and a period of 90 days had elapsed.

Ø Objective and Framework:

o The protocol establishes a transparent legal framework to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

Ø India’s Participation: India ratified the Nagoya Protocol in 2012.

Ø Scope and Coverage:

o It applies to genetic resources that fall under the purview of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

o It also covers benefits derived from the utilisation of such genetic resources.

o In addition, it includes traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources and the sharing of benefits arising from its use.