28 Aug | UPSC Current Affairs: Gulbarga Fort, Atacama Salt Flat, Plea Bargaining and More

UPSC GS 1

Gulbarga Fort

• News: The Gulbarga Fort is a symbol of the history, art and legacy of Bahmani Sultanate – the first independent Muslim Kingdom of the Deccan.
• Location:
  • • The Gulbarga Fort is located in Karnataka. 
• Foundation and Fortifications:
  • • Early Foundations: Originally laid by the Kakatiyas of Warangal in the 12th century and later fortified by the Qutub Shahi dynasty.
    • Bahmani Reconstruction: The fort was established by Alauddin Hassan Gangu Bahman Shah and it showcases the power and grandeur of the first independent Muslim kingdom of the Deccan. 

• Architectural and Artistic Contributions:
  • • Bala Hisar: The eastern entrance’s highest peak, standing at 61 feet, offering panoramic views. Built as a last stronghold against invaders.
    • Jama Masjid: Built by Muhammad Shah-I, this mosque reflects Bahmani architectural excellence and is inspired by the Great Mosque of Cordoba. It features a blend of Persian, Moorish, and Indian styles.
    • Defensive Features: The Bahmani Sultans enhanced the fort with a two-layered wall, 50 feet thick, and a 90-foot-wide moat encircling its three miles of fortifications.
    • Style: The combination of Persian, Turkish and Indian art and architectural techniques resulted in the evolution of a distinctive Deccani style that can be seen in the fort.
    • Gates: The fort has two main gates: Bada Darwaza (east) and Hathi Darwaza (west).
    • Hathi Darwaza: A massive gate with a serpentine passage designed to repel elephants and intruders.
    • Tunnels: The fort includes three tunnels, located near the gates and on the south and west sides.
    • Tombs Near the Fort: The tombs of the first three Bahmani Sultans and the Dargah of Sheikh Sirajuddin Junaidi are located near the fort.
    • Haft Gumbad: The Fort consists of seven tombs, including those of four sultans, showcasing Bahmani funerary architecture.
    • Shor Gumbad: The Bahmani sultans built this Gumbad to keep an eye on the enemy movement miles away from the fort .
    • Sultanpur and Agricultural Legacy: Located 5 kilometers northwest of Gulbarga Fort, this site was known for its sophisticated irrigation system, including step-wells, canals, and bowlis, used for agricultural purposes.
    • Longest Cannon: The Fort has world’s largest cannon measuring 29 feet in length. 

• Cultural and Religious Integration
  • • Interfaith Marriage: Sultan Firuz Shah’s marriage to the daughter of Vijayanagara’s King Deva Raya exemplifies cultural and religious bridging.
    • Religious Tolerance: The Bahmani Sultans practiced inclusivity, reflected in the existence of a dilapidated temple structure (Someshwar Temple) within the fort.
• Historical Significance:
  • • The 14th-century Gulbarga Fort, from which eighteen Bahmani kings ruled for 200 years (1347 to 1527 AD), is a symbol of the Bahmani Sultanate’s history, art, and legacy. 

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Atacama Salt Flat 

• News: The Atacama Salt Flat in northern Chile is sinking at a rate of 1 to 2 centimeters per year due to human activities, particularly lithium brine extraction.
• Atacama Salt Flat :
  • • Atacama Salt Flats is located in the Atacama Desert in northeastern Chile.
    • It is the biggest salt deposit in Chile. 
    • It has a rough white surface below which there is a large salt lake.
    • The salt flat is one of the largest sources of lithium.
    • The Salar is in Chile’s Atacama Desert, is the driest place on the planet.

• Lithium Brine Extraction
  • • Process: Lithium brine extraction involves pumping salt-rich water to the surface and into evaporation ponds to extract lithium.
    • Prevalence: This method is widely used in salt flats, particularly in Chile’s Atacama, one of the largest sources of lithium globally.
• Causes of Land Subsidence
  • • Sinking Issue: The Earth’s surface is sinking due to lithium-rich brine being pumped out faster than the natural recharge rate of the aquifers.
    • Affected Area: The most impacted region is in the southwest part of the salt flat, where lithium mining is concentrated. The sinking area measures about 8 km from north to south and 5 km from east to west.
• What is Lithium?
  • • Description: Lithium, also known as “white gold,” is a highly valued metal essential for producing rechargeable batteries used in laptops, mobile phones, and electric vehicles.
    • Importance: Lithium is crucial in global efforts to combat climate change due to its role in powering sustainable technologies.
    • Reserves: Australia is the world’s largest lithium producer. Bolivia, Chile and Argentina (the “lithium triangle”) have the largest estimated resources, with nearly 50 million tonnes of lithium between the three countries.
• Environmental Impact of Lithium Mining
  • • Water Scarcity: Lithium extraction is highly water-intensive, requiring around 2,000 tons of water to produce just one ton of lithium. This exacerbates water scarcity in the Atacama Desert, impacting indigenous communities and local wildlife.
    • Chemical Contamination: The use of chemicals such as sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide in lithium extraction contaminates the soil and water, posing a significant threat to ecosystems and endangering local species.
    • Impact on Wildlife: A 2022 study revealed that lithium mining has caused a decline in the flamingo population in the Atacama region due to reduced water levels, adversely affecting their reproduction.

UPSC GS 2

Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY)

• News: It is being said that the MUDRA 2.0 loans should target greater equity, deepen financial literacy.
• Introduction: Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched by the Government of India in 2015, aimed at providing affordable credit to micro and small enterprises.
• Focus: The scheme aims to integrate underserved enterprises into the formal financial system by offering easy access to credit.
• Objective of PMMY
• “Fund the Unfunded“:  The primary objective is to enable small borrowers to secure loans from various financial institutions such as Public Sector Banks (PSBs), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), Cooperative Banks, Private Sector Banks, Foreign Banks, Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs), and Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs).
• Loan Details under PMMY
  • • Loan Amount: Up to ₹10 lakh for non-farm income-generating activities in sectors like manufacturing, processing, trading, and services.
    • Eligibility: Any Indian citizen with a viable business plan for a non-farm sector income-generating activity requiring credit below ₹10 lakh can apply for a MUDRA loan through banks, MFIs, or NBFCs.
• Categories of Loans under PMMY
  • • Shishu: Loans up to ₹50,000, aimed at new and micro enterprises.
    • Kishore: Loans ranging from ₹50,000 to ₹5 lakh, for businesses in the growth phase.
    • Tarun: Loans from ₹5 lakh to ₹10 lakh, for businesses looking to expand further.
• Subsidy under PMMY
  • • No Direct Subsidy:
      •  There is no direct subsidy under PMMY.
      •  However, if a loan is linked to a government scheme that provides capital subsidies, the loan can be availed under PMMY with the associated benefits.
• Impact of MUDRA 1.0
  • • Loan Disbursement: Over ₹27.75 lakh crore was disbursed to 47 crore small and new entrepreneurs, significantly boosting the grassroots economy and providing access to formal credit for previously excluded populations.
    • Inclusivity: Approximately 69% of MUDRA loan accounts are held by women, and 51% by SC/ST and OBC entrepreneurs, promoting gender equality and social equity.
    • Job Creation: The scheme has been instrumental in creating jobs, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas, encouraging self-employment and the growth of small businesses.
• Vision for MUDRA 2.0
• Expanded Scope: 
  • • MUDRA 2.0 should focus on improving outreach, especially in rural and semi-urban areas, and provide comprehensive services like financial literacy, mentorship, and business support.
• Financial Literacy Programmes: 
  • • Nationwide initiatives should be introduced covering budgeting, savings, credit management, investment strategies, and digital literacy to reduce default rates and improve business operations.
• Enhanced Credit Guarantee Scheme (ECGS): 
  • • To encourage more lending to small and microenterprises, MUDRA 2.0 should include an ECGS, reducing risk for financial institutions.
• Robust Monitoring and Evaluation Framework (RMEF): 
  • • Leveraging technology, MUDRA 2.0 should implement a framework for real-time tracking of loan disbursements, utilisation, and repayments, ensuring transparency, minimising misuse, and improving efficiency. 
    • Beneficiary impact assessments should be included to measure socio-economic outcomes and guide policy enhancements.

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

• News: The Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) completed 10 years of implementation recently.
• Definition:
  • • The PMJDY is a central scheme that was announced by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi in his Independence Day address on 15th August 2014.
    •  Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services, namely, Banking/ Savings & Deposit Accounts, Remittance, Credit, Insurance, Pension in an affordable manner.
• Objectives:
  • • Banking the unbanked – Opening of basic savings bank deposit (BSBD) account with minimal paperwork, relaxed KYC, e-KYC, account opening in camp mode, zero balance & zero charges
    • Securing the unsecured – Issuance of Indigenous Debit cards for cash withdrawals & payments at merchant locations, with free accident insurance coverage of Rs. 2 lakhs
    • Funding the unfunded – Other financial products like micro-insurance, overdraft for consumption, micro-pension & micro-credit.

• Features: 
  • • Eligibility: Individuals without any other bank account can open a Basic Savings Bank Deposit (BSBD) account at any bank branch or Business Correspondent (Bank Mitra) outlet.
    • Accidental Insurance: Free accidental insurance cover on RuPay cards was increased from ₹1 lakh to ₹2 lakhs for PMJDY accounts, effective from August 28, 2018.
    • Overdraft Facility: PMJDY accounts offer an overdraft facility of ₹10,000, with an upper age limit of 65 years for availing the OD.
    • Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Accounts are eligible for DBT.
    • Insurance Schemes: PMJDY accounts are covered under Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana.
    • Pension Scheme: Eligible for Atal Pension Yojana.
    • Microfinance: Accounts are included in the Micro Units Development & Refinance Agency Bank scheme.
• Key Achievements:
  • • Account Openings: As of July 2024, 52.74 crore Jan Dhan accounts have been opened.
    • Gender Inclusivity: Over 55% of account holders are women.
    • Banking Coverage: Nearly 100% of villages are covered by banking outlets within 5 km, as per the Jan Dhan Darshak App.
    • Deposit Growth: The average deposit in PMJDY accounts increased by 4.12 times between 2015 and 2024.
    • Zero Balance Accounts: The number of zero balance accounts decreased to 4.26 crore from 8.52 crore in March 2015.

Plea Bargaining

• News: Nearly two decades after plea bargaining was introduced to reduce case backlogs, its use in India remains minimal, according to a recent report by the Ministry of Law and Justice.
• Definition:
  • • Plea bargaining is a legal process where a defendant agrees to plead guilty in exchange for concessions from the prosecutor or court, such as reduced charges or sentences.
    •  It aims to resolve criminal cases efficiently, saving time and resources for both the prosecution and defendant.

• Plea Bargaining in India:
  • • Legal Framework: Governed by the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, plea bargaining was introduced in India in 2005.
    • Eligibility: Available for offenses punishable with imprisonment of seven years or less. The accused must voluntarily opt for plea bargaining, and the court must ensure the plea is made voluntarily and with full knowledge of its consequences.
• Process:
  • • The accused initiates the process by filing an application before the court.
    • The court examines the application and may allow or reject it based on the case’s facts.
    • If allowed, the matter is referred to the prosecutor for negotiation.
    • The prosecutor may offer a reduced sentence or other concessions in exchange for a guilty plea.
    • The accused can accept or reject the offer; if accepted, the court records the plea and pronounces the sentence.
    • The court has the discretion to accept or reject the agreement if deemed unjust or contrary to justice.
• Rights and Conditions:
  • • The accused can withdraw the plea at any time before sentencing, continuing the trial as if the plea bargaining process had not occurred.
    • Once a sentence is pronounced, it is final, with limited grounds for appeal, except in cases of manifest injustice.
    • If the accused breaches the plea agreement, the court may set it aside and proceed with the trial.

National Medical Register (NMR) Portal

• News: The launch of the National Medical Register (NMR) portal by the National Medical Commission (NMC) is expected to significantly enhance the detection of fake medical practitioners.
• About National Medical Register (NMR) Portal
• Purpose: The NMR Portal, established by the National Medical Commission (NMC), is designed for the registration of all MBBS doctors eligible for practice in India.
• Legal Mandate: Under Section 31 of the NMC Act, 2019, the Ethics and Medical Registration Board (EMRB) is responsible for maintaining a National Register with details of licensed medical practitioners, including names, addresses, and qualifications.
• Features:
  • • Comprehensive Database: A dynamic database for allopathic (MBBS) doctors in India.
    • Aadhaar Linkage: Linked with doctors’ Aadhaar IDs to ensure authenticity.
    • Simple Registration: Online registration process, integrated with medical colleges, State Medical Councils (SMCs), and other institutions.
    • Data Access: Public access to some data; restricted access for EMRB, SMCs, National Board of Examinations (NBE), medical institutions, and registered practitioners as needed.
    • Additional Features: Allows for adding qualifications, tracking applications, suspending licenses, and issuing NMR ID cards and digital doctor certificates.
    • Future Enhancements: The portal will undergo continuous upgrades to improve the registration process.

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UPSC GS 3

Combination Drugs (Cocktail Drugs)

• News: The Union Government has banned 156 fixed-dose combination  drugs, including medicines such as Cheston Cold and Foracet, used for cold and fever and pain respectively.
• What are FDCs (Fixed-Dose Combinations)?
  • • FDCs are medicines that contain more than one active ingredient in a single pill, capsule, or shot.
    • Active ingredients are chemical compounds in medicines that have an effect on the body.
    • FDCs are primarily used for patients with conditions like tuberculosis and diabetes, where multiple medicines are required regularly.
    • The primary benefit of FDCs is the reduction in the number of pills a patient needs to take daily, improving adherence to treatment.
    • India has the highest number of antibiotic FDCs on the market worldwide. 

• Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940:
  • • FDCs have been banned under section 26 A of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940. 
• Banned FDCS: Among the banned drugs are:
  • • Aceclofenac 50mg + Paracetamol 125mg tablet
    • Mefenamic Acid Paracetamol Injection, Cetirizine HCl Paracetamol Phenylephrine HCl, Levocetirizine Phenylephrine HCl Paracetamol, Paracetamol Chlorpheniramine Maleate Phenyl Propanolamine and Camylofin Dihydrochloride 25 mg Paracetamol 300mg 
    • Combination of Paracetamol, Tramadol, Taurine and Caffeine.
• Why are FDCs Banned?
  • • Unnecessary Ingredient Combinations: 
    • FDCs contain ingredients that either do not work well together or have ingredients that are not needed by patients to be taken together. 
    • Contribution to Antibiotic Resistance: 
    • The unnecessary consumption of antibiotics can lead to increase in antibiotic resistance, which means increasingly stronger antibiotics are needed for the treatment of even simple infections.
    • Prevalence of WHO ‘Not Recommended’ Antibiotic FDCs: 
    • In India, of the 4.5 billion standard units of antibiotic FDCs sold in 2020, 41.5% were attributed to combinations listed as ‘not recommended’ by WHO.
    • Increase in FDC Usage Despite Previous Bans: 
    • Despite the earlier bans, a 2023 study found that FDCs as a proportion of total antibiotics sold in India had actually increased from 32.9% in 2008 to 37.3% in 2020.
    • Evasion of Government Pricing Controls:
    •  Another reason for the ban is that companies create FDCs to evade government pricing controls on essential medicines, which are based on average market prices.

RHUMI-1

• News:  Tamil Nadu-based space startup Space Zone India has launched the country’s first hybrid reusable rocket – Rhumi 1 onboard a mobile platform.
• India’s First Reusable Hybrid Rocket: 
  • • RHUMI-1 is a pioneering rocket developed by Tamil Nadu-based startup Space Zone India in collaboration with Martin Group.
• Hybrid Propulsion System: 
  • • The rocket features an innovative propulsion system that combines the benefits of both liquid and solid fuels.
    •  The hybrid design uses solid propellant and liquid oxidizer, which only mix during combustion, reducing the risk of accidental detonation.

• Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness: 
  • • This technology enhances efficiency and lowers operational costs.
• Unique Features
  • • CO2-Triggered Parachute System: RHUMI-1 incorporates an eco-friendly, cost-effective parachute system triggered by CO2, ensuring the safe recovery of rocket components post-launch.
    • Firework-Free: The rocket is completely free of fireworks and contains no TNT, making it safer and more environmentally friendly.
• About the Launch
  • • Launch Location: RHUMI-1 was launched from the East Coast Road Beach in Thiruvidandhai, Chennai.
    • Payload: The rocket carried 3 Cube Satellites and 50 PICO Satellites.
    • Suborbital Trajectory: The rocket was launched into a suborbital trajectory using India’s first hydraulic mobile launch system, which allows for flexible launches from various locations and angles between 0 to 120 degrees.
• Satellite Missions
  • • Cube Satellites: These satellites are tasked with monitoring and collecting data on atmospheric conditions, such as cosmic radiation intensity, UV radiation intensity, and air quality.
    • PICO Satellites: They focus on analyzing environmental factors, including vibrations, accelerometer readings, altitude, ozone levels, and toxic substances, offering insights into atmospheric dynamics.